Multi-level students’ sense of community development in hybrid and online learning environments at higher educational institutions: a systematic literature review

The formulation of a sense of community (SOC) among students has received significant attention in the literature in recent years. However, digitally enhanced learning and COVID-19 have amplified the challenges vis-à-vis connecting students and making them feel involved and recognized in virtual learning ecologies for higher educational institutions (HEIs). This review examines the factors impacting students’ SOC development in online and hybrid learning environments for HEIs. To provide a holistic view, we synthesize the streams of theoretical foundations on SOC for keyword search strategy and follow Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses protocol. In total, 128 empirical studies from 2015 to October 2022 are synthesized. One of the main contributions lies in disclosing the multiple levels of students’ SOC formulation from a sociological perspective on HEIs. It further broadens our understanding of the dimensions, and the roles and responsibilities of key players, as well as the units involved in the social context of HEIs. The main findings reveal that HEIs should “circulate the blood” by integrating various key elements identified in pedagogy, instructor, learner, and extra-curriculum fields into the learning ecology for SOC facilitation to formulate an implicit curriculum and a more interactive, supportive, and caring environment.