Vapor deposition unlocking uniform passivation in fully vacuum-evaporated perovskite photovoltaics

The transition of perovskite solar cells (PSCs) from laboratory-scale devices to large-area commercial modules is fundamentally challenged by the poor uniformity and repeatability of conventional solution-based surface passivation. To overcome this critical bottleneck, we introduce a vacuum-evaporated passivation strategy using the thermally evaporable molecule bathophenanthroline (BPhen). This solvent-free approach yields highly uniform passivation layers, effectively suppressing surface defects and enhancing charge extraction through synergistic π-π stacking with the C60 electron transport layer. Our fully vacuum-evaporated PSCs achieve a remarkable power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 20.13 % for champion cells and 18.42 % for 5 cm × 5 cm mini-modules. These results not only demonstrate the superiority of evaporated passivation for fabricating large-area devices but also establish a scalable and robust engineering pathway toward the commercial production of high-performance perovskite photovoltaics.