Overseas Chinese gardens: Localizing “harmony between humans and nature” across four case studies over 40 years (1980s–2020s)

Despite the growing number and great variety of overseas Chinese gardens developed over the past four decades, a fundamental question persists that influences decision-making at every stage of such collaborative projects: how can the classical philosophy of “harmony between humans and nature” be interpreted in international contexts characterized by varied cultural and institutional systems? This article critically reviews the key essence of human–nature relationships underlying the design, construction, and adaptation of overseas Chinese gardens in response to practical conditions and constraints. Through comparative analysis of four selected cases spanning 40 years, the study examines the main changes in project focus, patterns, and influential factors, as well as the shared foundations that contribute to the vitality and sustainability of these gardens. The findings reveal that the concept of “harmony” has been redefined to balance complex relationships with the natural environment and among stakeholders and visitors throughout the whole process, from design to construction and operation. This redefinition reflects a broader transformation that emphasizes diversifying funding sources, engaging the public through lived experiences, and prioritizing long-term operational sustainability. Moreover, the growing emphasis on an open, inclusive, and green approach to growth and living has become a shared international goal, aligning with the philosophy of harmony in Chinese gardens and positions their internationalization as a potentially valuable element in urban planning, contributing to sustainability, equity, and quality of life in contemporary society.