Advancements in cancer biomarker discovery over fifteen years: diagnostics and prognostic approach in somatic cancer

Cancer biomarkers are now recognized as major tools for early detection, diagnosis, and prognosis. In the last 10 years or so, molecular biology, proteomics, and genomics have been rapidly advancing to find tissue-specific biomarkers used in clinical practice. In this review, the development of the cancer biomarkers published in 2011–2025, for lung, breast, liver, and kidney cancers, is reviewed. A systematic review of peer-reviewed literature searched PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, including human and published English studies. A variety of detection approaches, including immunohistochemistry, next-generation sequencing, and liquid biopsy technology, were assessed with an explicit focus on clinically relevant biomarkers. The main trends indicate that while classic protein markers, particularly carcinoembryonic antigen and neuron-specific enolase in lung cancer, hormone receptor status and HER2 in breast cancer, and alpha-fetoprotein in liver cancer, have evolved, many modern genomic markers including epidermal growth factor receptor mutations, anaplastic lymphoma kinase rearrangements, TP53 mutations, vascular endothelial growth factor pathways, and von Hippel–Lindau gene alterations have evolved, resulting in a large gap in their knowledge. These innovations underscore the importance of molecular biomarkers in supporting early detection, targeted therapy, and enhanced surveillance of disease progression. Cancer biomarker studies have evolved from protein-based biomarkers to encompass both genomic and transcriptomic targets, which may allow for more targeted and individualized cancer interventions. Multi-omics integration and novel types of biomarkers like circulating tumor DNA, circulating tumor cells, and microRNAs will focus on developing early diagnosis, prognosis, and personalized treatment strategies as a prerequisite of such work.